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Across 4. A British-administered island group in the Caribbean Sea northwest of Jamaica, including Grand Cayman, Little Cayman, and Cayman Brac. The islands were discovered by Columbus in 1503. Georgetown, on Grand Cayman, is the capital. 8. A country of southeast Africa. Center of the widespread Malawi kingdom from the 1400s to the late 1700s, the region became a British protectorate in 1891 and was known as Nyasaland from 1907 until 1964. It joined Northern and Southern Rhodesia (now Zambia and Zimbabwe) in a federation from 1953 to 1963 and became independent as Malawi in 1964. Lilongwe is the capital and Blantyre the largest city. 9. A city and administrative region of southeast China on the coast southeast of Guangzhou, including Hong Kong Island and adjacent areas. Hong Kong Island was occupied by the British during the Opium War (1839-1842) and ceded to them by the Treaty of Nanking (1842). Other portions of the colony were acquired in 1860 and in 1898 by a 99-year lease. Hong Kong reverted to Chinese sovereignty in 1997. It is a major port and a center of international commerce and banking. 10. A country of South Asia. Occupying land crisscrossed by ancient invasion paths, Pakistan was the home of the prehistoric Indus Valley civilization, which flourished until overrun by Aryans c. 1500 bc. After being conquered by numerous rulers and powers, it passed to the British as part of India and became a separate Muslim state in 1947. The country originally included the Bengalese territory of East Pakistan, which achieved its separate independence in 1971 as Bangladesh. Pakistan became a republic in 1956. Islamabad is the capital and Karachi the largest city. 12. A country of northern Europe in the western part of the Scandinavian Peninsula. Norway was ruled by numerous petty kingdoms from the ninth century, and raiding parties reached Normandy, Iceland, Greenland, islands off Scotland and Ireland, and the coast of the New World. Norway was finally unified in the 12th century. After 1397 it was controlled at various times by Denmark and Sweden. Independence was achieved in 1905. Oslo is the capital and the largest city. 15. An independent papal state on the Tiber River within Rome, Italy. Created by the Lateran Treaty signed by Pope Pius XI and Victor Emmanuel III of Italy in 1929, it issues its own currency and postage stamps and has its own newspaper and broadcasting facilities. The government is run by a council of cardinals who are responsible to the pope. 16. An island country in the North Atlantic near the Arctic Circle. Norse settlers arrived c. 850-875, and Christianity was introduced c. 1000. Iceland passed to Norway in 1262 and, with Norway, to Denmark in 1380. In 1918 it became a sovereign state still nominally under the Danish king, until Icelanders voted for full independence in 1944. Reykjavík is the capital and the largest city. 18. Two island groups of the British West Indies in the Atlantic Ocean southeast of the Bahama Islands. The islands were a dependency of Jamaica after 1874 and became a crown colony in 1962. 20. A country of southern Africa forming an enclave within east-central South Africa. Inhabited originally by the San and later by a variety of Sotho-speaking peoples, the area became a British protectorate in 1868 and achieved its independence in 1966. Maseru is the capital. 21. An island country in the Caribbean Sea south of Cuba. Originally inhabited by Arawaks, it was visited by Columbus in 1494 and settled by the Spanish in 1509. The British captured the island in 1655, and it was formally ceded to Great Britain in 1670, becoming a crown colony in 1866. Jamaica became independent in 1962. Kingston is the capital and the largest city. 22. A country of southern Europe comprising the peninsula of Italy, Sardinia, Sicily, and several smaller islands. It was settled in antiquity by Italic tribes, Etruscans, and Greek colonists, but from the fourth century bc became dominated by Rome, eventually forming the core of the Roman Empire. After ad 476, Italy was ruled by various Germanic tribes, local families, and popes. The 13th to 16th centuries saw a cultural flowering in such city-states as Pisa, Florence, and Venice that eventually spread throughout Europe as the Renaissance. Nationalism in the 19th century led to unification under King Victor Emmanuel II in 1870. Italy became a fascist state under Benito Mussolini, whose regime (1922-1943) was allied with Germany in World War II. After the war, Italy was reconstituted as a republic (1946). Rome is the capital and largest city. 23. A landlocked country of central Europe, made up of the historic regions of Bohemia, Moravia, and part of Silesia. It was a part of Czechoslovakia from 1918 until January 1993. Prague is the capital and largest city. 25. A country occupying the easternmost island of the West Indies. First inhabited by Arawaks and Caribs, Barbados was held briefly by the Portuguese before being settled by the British in the early 1600s. It became a separate colony in 1885 and gained full independence in 1966. Bridgetown is the capital and the largest city. 26. An island country of the West Indies in the Windward Islands south of Martinique. The island was probably sighted by Columbus in 1502. Resistance from the Carib inhabitants defeated several attempts at colonization by the English in the early 1600s, although France succeeded in establishing a settlement in the mid-1600s. The island changed hands several times between the two powers until the end of the Napoleonic Wars (1814), when it passed definitively to Great Britain. St. Lucia joined the West Indies Federation (1958-1962), gaining self-government in 1967 and full independence in 1979. Castries is the capital. 28. A region of southeast Europe on the Balkan Peninsula roughly coextensive with ancient Macedon and including parts of modern-day Greece, Bulgaria, and the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia. After the fall of the Alexandrian empire, it was held by Romans, Byzantines, Bulgars, Serbs, and Turks. The present division was largely determined after the Second Balkan War (1913). 34. A country of central Europe. In ancient times Illyrian and Celtic peoples inhabited the area, which was ruled by Rome after the first century bc and settled by Slavs in the sixth century ad. Slovenia came under Austrian control after 1335 and joined the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes (later Yugoslavia) in 1918. During World War II Slovenia was divided among Germany, Italy, and Hungary, but returned to Yugoslavia after the war. Slovenia declared its independence from Yugoslavia in June 1991. Ljubljana is the capital and largest city. 38. A country of the northwest Balkan Peninsula. It was a constituent republic of Yugoslavia from 1946 to 1991, when it declared its independence. In 1992 the country erupted in war among Serb, Bosniak, and Croat factions. A peace agreement was reached in November 1995 by Balkan leaders in Dayton, Ohio, which called for the creation of two substates, a Croat-Bosniak federation to govern one half of the country and a Bosnian Serb republic to constitute the other half, united under a newly created national presidency, assembly, court, and central bank. 39. A country of south-central Africa. Originally inhabited by the San and later (after the 18th century) by the Tswana, the region became a British protectorate as Bechuanaland (1885) and gained full independence in 1966. Gaborone is the capital and the largest city. 40. A country of northeast Africa south of Egypt. Northern Sudan formed part of the ancient kingdoms of Nubia and Cush. Conquered by Egypt in 1820-1822 and jointly administered by Great Britain and Egypt after 1899, Sudan achieved independence in 1956. Khartoum is the capital and Omdurman is the largest city. In 2011, the southern part of the country seceded, forming the republic of South Sudan. 41. A small Alpine principality in central Europe between Austria and Switzerland. It was created as a principality within the Holy Roman Empire in 1719 and became independent in 1866. Vaduz is the capital. 42. A country of western Africa lying along the Gambia River and surrounded, except for a short coastline on the Atlantic Ocean, by Senegal. Once a part of the Mali Empire, it became a British crown colony in 1843 and a British protectorate in 1894. Gambia achieved independence in 1965. From 1982 to 1989 it formed with Senegal the Confederation of Senegambia. Banjul is the capital and the largest city. 43. A republic of southeast Europe on the northern Balkan peninsula. Serbs settled the region in the 6th century and formed an independent kingdom in the 13th century. Dominated by the Ottoman Empire after 1389, Serbia did not regain its independence until 1878. The new kingdom of Serbia expanded its territory during the Balkan wars (1912-1913). After the assassination (1914) of Archduke Franz Ferdinand by a Serbian nationalist, Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia, sparking World War I. In 1918 Serbia became a major constituent of the Kingdom of the Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes, which was later (1929) renamed Yugoslavia. After the disintegration of Yugoslavia in the 1990s, Serbia remained united to Montenegro until 2006, when the two became separate republics. 45. An island country in the southern Pacific Ocean southeast of Australia. Maori groups probably migrated to New Zealand from Polynesia by the late 1200s. Visited by Abel Tasman in 1642, the islands were more thoroughly explored by Capt. James Cook in three voyages between 1769 and 1777. The British established their first permanent settlement in 1840 and claimed the region as a crown colony. New Zealand received dominion status in 1907 and became fully independent in 1931. Wellington is the capital and Auckland the largest city. 51. A group of islands in the southern Atlantic Ocean east of the Strait of Magellan. Controlled by Great Britain since the 1830s, the islands are also claimed by Argentina and were occupied briefly by Argentinian troops in 1982 before being reoccupied by British forces. 52. A country of central Europe bordering on the Baltic Sea. Unified as a kingdom in the 11th century, it enjoyed a golden age under the Jagiello dynasty (1386-1572) and was a major power in the 15th and 16th centuries. National independence was lost in 1697 and it was carved up among other states in three partitions (1772, 1793, and 1795). Poland then disappeared as a geographic entity until its reconstitution as a republic in 1918. Its present boundaries date from the end of World War II. Warsaw is the capital and the largest city. 53. A landlocked country of central Europe. Settled by Slavic peoples c. 6th century ad, the region was conquered by Magyars in the early 10th century and was generally under Hungarian rule until 1918, when it became part of Czechoslovakia. Slovakia became a German puppet state during World War II. It was taken by the Soviets in 1945 and again made part of Czechoslovakia, which came under Communist rule in 1948. After the end of Communist rule in 1989, government leaders reached an agreement to separate the country into two fully independent republics. The Republic of Slovakia came into existence on January 1, 1993. Bratislava is the capital and largest city. 55. A country of west-central Europe. The region was conquered by Germanic tribes in the 5th century and by Swabia and Burgundy in the 9th, becoming part of the Holy Roman Empire in 1033. Protesting Habsburg control in the 13th century, the Swiss formed a defense league made up of cantons that became the basis of their confederation, and by 1499 they had achieved independence. The Reformation in the 16th century led to religious civil wars that lasted through the next two centuries. The French took brief control of Switzerland during the French Revolution, but the confederacy was restored in 1815. Switzerland later adopted a federal constitution (1848) and maintained a policy of neutrality through both world wars. Bern is the capital and Zurich the largest city. 56. A country of southeast Europe on the southern Balkan Peninsula and including numerous islands in the Mediterranean, Aegean, and Ionian Seas. Settled by Achaeans, Aeolians, Ionians, Minoans, and Dorians by 1000 bc, the region grew as an amalgam of independent city-states, many of which established colonies throughout the Mediterranean by the eighth century bc. Classical Greek culture, centered around Athens, reached a high point in the fifth century bc before being conquered by Philip II of Macedon in 338 bc. The area was later controlled by the Roman and Byzantine Empires before being absorbed into the Ottoman Empire after 1453. In 1829, Greece gained its independence and established a constitutional monarchy. The king was deposed following a military coup in 1967, and a democratic republic was established in 1975. Athens is the capital and the largest city. 58. A country of western Africa on the Atlantic coast. Inhabited by the Temne when the Portuguese first visited the coast in 1460, the region was later settled by Mande-speaking peoples from present-day Liberia. In 1792 freed slaves were brought from Nova Scotia to found the colony of Freetown, which was transferred to British administration in 1808. The region became a British protectorate in 1896 and achieved independence in 1961. Sierra Leone became a republic in 1971. Freetown is the capital and the largest city. 59. A British colony in the eastern Caribbean east of Puerto Rico and the US Virgin Islands. Road Town, on Tortola Island, is the capital. 62. A country of eastern Europe east of Poland and west of Russia. Originally settled by Slavs, the region was subject to Lithuania and Poland before passing to Russia in the late 18th century. It was a constituent republic of the USSR, known as the Belorussian Soviet Socialist Republic, from 1922 to 1991. Minsk is the capital and the largest city. 63. A country of southwest Europe on the Iberian Peninsula. Inhabited since the Stone Age, the region was successively colonized in ancient times by Phoenicians, Greeks, Carthage, and Rome. Germanic peoples settled in Spain starting in ad 409 but were supplanted by the Moors (711-719), under whose rule the region was noted for its prosperity and cultural development. The Moors were gradually displaced by small Christian states and were ousted from their last stronghold, Granada, in 1492. Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile then became rulers of a united Spain, which became a world power through exploration and conquest. After the empire was lost in the 18th and 19th centuries, Spain experienced social and economic unrest culminating in a civil war (1936-1939) and the rise of Francisco Franco. After Franco's death in 1975, a constitutional monarchy was established under King Juan Carlos. Madrid is the capital and the largest city. 65. A country in the Apennines near the Adriatic Sea. It is surrounded by Italy and is the world's smallest republic. Founded, according to tradition, in the fourth century ad, San Marino was recognized by the papacy in 1631 and has maintained its independence, with a few brief interruptions, ever since. It signed a treaty of friendship with Italy in 1862, was allied with Italy in World Wars I and II, and was bombed by the Allied forces in 1944. The town of San Marino is its capital. 68. A country of western Africa on the Atlantic Ocean. Established by the American Colonization Society in 1821 as a settlement for freed slaves, Liberia was the first colonized country in Africa to achieve independence (1847). A military coup in 1980 initiated a period of civil unrest leading to full-scale civil war in 1990. After a cease-fire in 1996, Charles Taylor was elected president in 1997 but was ousted in 2003, and new democratic elections were held in 2005. Monrovia is the capital and the largest city. 70. A principality on the Mediterranean Sea consisting of an enclave in southeast France. Probably settled by Phoenicians, it has been ruled by the Grimaldi family since the 1200s. At various times Monaco was under the protection of Spain, Sardinia, and France but regained its sovereignty in 1861. The village of Monaco, or Monaco-Ville, is the capital. 71. A country of north-central Europe. Occupied since c. 500 bc by Germanic tribes, the region became part of the Frankish empire by the sixth century ad. Later it became a loose federation of principalities and the nucleus of the Holy Roman Empire until the imperial state was broken up by Napoleon in 1806. Germany became a confederation after 1815 and then an empire centered around Prussia (1871-1918). Following its defeat in World War I, it was reorganized as the Weimar Republic, which collapsed when Adolf Hitler rose to power and formed the Third Reich. Germany's defeat in 1945 at the end of World War II resulted in its division into four occupation zones, each controlled by an Allied power. Out of the US, French, and British zones West Germany was established in 1949, while the Soviet zone became East Germany. The two Germanies were reunified in 1990 after the fall of the East German Communist government. Berlin is the capital and largest city. 77. A country of southeast Europe on the Black Sea. Settled in the 6th century ad by Slavs, it was subject to the Ottoman Empire from the late 14th century until 1908, when it became an independent kingdom. The Soviet Union invaded in 1944 and established the People's Republic of Bulgaria. Communist rule came to an end in 1989, and a democratic constitution was established in 1991. Sofia is the capital and the largest city. 79. A country of the southeast West Indies in the Atlantic Ocean off northeast Venezuela. It comprises the islands of Trinidad and Tobago, which were formally united as a British colony in 1898 and became independent in 1962. Port of Spain, on Trinidad, is the capital. 83. A commonwealth comprising the continent of Australia, the island state of Tasmania, and several island territories and dependencies. The continent was inhabited by Aboriginal peoples for at least 40,000 years before the first British settlement, a penal colony at Port Jackson (now part of Sydney), was established in 1788. The present-day states grew as separate colonies; six of them formed a federation in 1901. In 1911 Northern Territory joined the commonwealth and the Capital Territory, site of Canberra, was created. Canberra is the capital and Sydney is the largest city. 84. A country of southwest Africa on the Atlantic Ocean. A German protectorate after 1884, it was occupied in 1915 by South Africa, which governed it under a League of Nations mandate (1920-1946) but refused to accept the United Nations trusteeship that replaced the mandate. In 1990, Namibia achieved full independence. Windhoek is the capital. 85. An island country in the Atlantic Ocean east of Florida and Cuba comprising some 700 islands and islets and numerous cays. The country gained its independence from Great Britain in 1973. Nassau, on New Providence Island, is the capital and the largest city. 86. A country of northern Europe on the Gulf of Bothnia and the Gulf of Finland. Settled by Finnish people by the beginning of the 8th century, the region was controlled from the 13th century by Sweden and after 1809 by Russia. Finland became independent in 1917. Helsinki is the capital and the largest city. 87. An island country of the eastern Caribbean between Guadeloupe and Martinique. Originally inhabited by Caribs, the island was visited by Christopher Columbus in 1493 and became a British colony in the early 1800s, gaining its independence in 1978. Roseau is the capital. 88. A country of east-central Africa. Inhabited since Paleolithic times, the region was settled by migrating Bantu people around ad 1100 and by Nilotic peoples from the north in the 1600s. The Bantu kingdom of Buganda was established in the 1700s and grew into a regional power before becoming a British protectorate in 1894. The protectorate was later extended to the entire region, which became independent as Uganda in 1962. Kampala is the capital and the largest city. 89. A country of southeast Europe on the Adriatic Sea. The region was settled in ancient times by Illyrians and later came under Roman, Byzantine, and Ottoman rule. Having declared independence in 1912, Albania was successively a principality, a republic (after 1925), a kingdom (after 1928), and a Communist state (after 1944). Elections in 1992 transferred power from the Communist Party to a nominally democratic government. Tiranë is the capital and the largest city. 90. A country of eastern Europe bordering on the Black Sea. Inhabited in early times by Scythians and Sarmatians, it was overrun by a number of conquerors, including Goths and Huns, until the rise of Kiev in the 9th century. The region came under the control of Lithuania in the mid-14th century and later passed to Poland and then to Russia (between 1667 and 1793). After the Russian Revolution an independent republic was proclaimed (1918), but Soviet troops retook control, and in 1922 it became one of the original constituent republics of the USSR, known as the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic. Ukraine gained its independence following the collapse of the USSR in 1991. Kiev is the capital and largest city.

Down 1. A country of north-central Europe on the Baltic Sea. The original inhabitants, the Letts, were conquered and Christianized in the 1200s by German knights, the Livonian Brothers of the Sword, who ruled the area until 1561, when it passed to Poland. Under Russian control from the 18th century, Latvia became independent after World War I but was annexed in 1940 by the USSR and known as the Latvian Soviet Socialist Republic until it declared its independence in 1990. Riga is the capital. 2. An island country in the central Windward Islands of the West Indies. It comprises St. Vincent Island and the northern islets of the Grenadines. Part of the West Indies Federation from 1958 to 1962, the country gained self-governing status in 1969 and full independence in 1979. Kingstown, on St. Vincent, is the capital. 3. A country of Central America on the Caribbean Sea. Originally inhabited by the Maya, the region was settled by the British beginning in 1638 and was established as the crown colony of British Honduras in 1862. It became self-governing in 1964, adopted the name Belize in 1973, and gained independence in 1981. Belmopan is the capital. 5. A country of southeast Asia consisting of the southern Malay Peninsula and the northern part of the island of Borneo. Malays probably moved into the peninsula c. 2000 bc, eventually reaching northern Borneo and displacing the indigenous Dayaks. Europeans established colonies starting in the 1500s. By the 1900s, Great Britain had established protectorates throughout the lower peninsula, which later formed the Union (1946) and then the Federation (1948) of Malaya. Gaining independence in 1957, it joined with Singapore, Sabah, and Sarawak to become the Federation of Malaysia in 1963. Singapore seceded from the federation in 1965. Kuala Lumpur is the capital and the largest city. 6. A country of eastern Europe bordering on Romania. Comprised of lands acquired by Russia from the historical region of Moldavia in 1791, 1793, and 1812 and (after 1940) part of Bessarabia, it was established as an autonomous republic of the USSR in 1924 and became a constituent republic in 1940, known as the Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic. Moldova declared its independence in 1991. Chişinău is the capital and the largest city. 7. A country of south-central Africa. The original San inhabitants were pushed out by migrating Bantus between the 16th and 18th centuries, and the area was explored by David Livingstone in the 1850s. It was administered after 1889 by the British South Africa Company, founded by Cecil Rhodes, becoming the protectorate of Northern Rhodesia in 1911 and passing to British administration in 1924. From 1953 to 1963 it was part of the colonial federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland, gaining independence in 1964 as the republic of Zambia. Lusaka is the capital and the largest city. 11. A country of northeast South America on the Atlantic Ocean. The region of Guiana was settled in the early 1600s by the Dutch, who competed with the British and the French over the next two centuries for control of the coast. Awarded the western portion of Guiana in 1815, Great Britain established (1831) the colony of British Guiana, which gained its independence as Guyana in 1966. Georgetown is the capital and the largest city. 13. A country of southeast Asia comprising Singapore Island and adjacent smaller islands. A trading center as early as the 14th century, Singapore was later part of Johor, a region of the southern Malay Peninsula, under the Malacca Sultanate. The island of Singapore was ceded to the British East India Company in 1819, and the city was founded the same year by Sir Thomas Raffles. The British took complete control in 1824 and added Singapore to the newly formed Straits Settlements in 1826. During World War II it was held by the Japanese (1942-1945) before being retaken by the British. Singapore became a crown colony in 1946, a self-governing state in 1959, part of the Federation of Malaysia in 1963, and a fully independent republic in 1965. The city of Singapore is the capital. 14. A country of southeast Asia in the Malay Archipelago including Sumatra, Java, Sulawesi, the Moluccas, parts of Borneo, New Guinea, and Timor, and many smaller islands. First settled by Austronesian-speaking peoples from the Asian mainland, the islands were the site of kingdoms allied with India before the arrival of Arab traders who introduced Islam, which became the dominant religion after the 1300s. The Dutch East Indies Company controlled the territory from 1602 to 1799, when authority was turned over to the government of the Netherlands. In 1945 Indonesia declared its independence, which was finally achieved in 1949. Jakarta, on Java, is the capital and the largest city. 16. An island in the northern Atlantic Ocean west of Great Britain, divided between the independent Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland, which is a part of the United Kingdom. The island was invaded by Celts c. 500 bc and converted to Christianity by Saint Patrick in the fifth century ad. Ireland came under English control in the 17th century and was joined with Great Britain by the Act of Union in 1801. After the Easter Rebellion (1916) and a war of independence (1919-1921), the island was split into the Irish Free State (now the Republic of Ireland) and Northern Ireland, which is still part of the United Kingdom. 17. Officially Russian Federation A country of eastern Europe and northern Asia stretching from the Baltic Sea to the Pacific Ocean. Formerly the Russian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic, the largest of the constituent republics of the USSR, it became an independent state in 1991 with Boris Yeltsin as the country's first directly elected president. In that same year, with Belarus and Ukraine, Russia formed the Commonwealth of Independent States, which was eventually joined by 12 of the 15 former Soviet republics. In March 1992 Russia signed a treaty with most of the semiautonomous ethnic territories within its borders, establishing the Russian Federation. Moscow is the capital. 19. A country of southern Asia covering most of the Indian subcontinent. Aryans from the northwest invaded c. 1500 bc, pushing Dravidian and other peoples to the south. Most of India was unified by the emperor Asoka in the 3rd century bc. It experienced a golden age in the 4th and 5th centuries ad before being invaded c. 1000 by Muslims and later by the Mongol conqueror Baber, who established the Mughal empire (1526-1857). Various European powers established trading posts in the 16th and 17th centuries, with the British East India Company assuming authority over most of the country by the early 19th century. A widespread rebellion sparked by the mutiny of native troops in 1857 led to the establishment of direct rule by the British crown in 1858. In the 20th century, India gained its independence from Great Britain (1947) following a campaign of civil disobedience led by the pacifist Mohandas Gandhi. Its concomitant partition into the separate countries of India and Pakistan resulted in a tumultuous migration of Muslims to Pakistan and Hindus and Sikhs to India in which approximately one million people died. New Delhi is the capital, and Mumbai is the largest city. 24. A country of northern Europe on Jutland and adjacent islands. It was unified in the 10th century by the Viking king Harold Bluetooth (died 985), who converted the people to Christianity. Denmark controlled England briefly in the 11th century and was united with Sweden and Norway in 1397. The union with Sweden lasted until 1523, and the union with Norway until 1814. Copenhagen is the capital and the largest city. 27. A country in the northern Leeward Islands of the Caribbean Sea, comprising the island of Antigua and the smaller islands of Barbuda and Redonda. Settled by the English in 1632, the country became independent in 1981. St. John's is the capital. 29. A landlocked country of central Europe. Settled by Celtic tribes, the region was conquered (15 bc-ad 10) by the Romans and later (8th century) by Charlemagne, who made it a border state of the Carolingian Empire. In the 13th century, Austria passed to the Habsburg family and remained the core of their vast holdings until the dissolution of Austria-Hungary in 1918, when Austria became a republic. Annexed by Adolf Hitler in 1938 and occupied by French, British, Soviet, and American forces in 1945 at the end of World War II, Austria regained full sovereignty in 1955. Vienna is the capital and the largest city. 30. A country of southwest Europe on the western Iberian Peninsula and the Madeira Islands and the Azores in the northern Atlantic Ocean. Originally inhabited by the Lusitanians, a Celtiberian people, the mainland area was subsequently held by the Romans, the Visigoths, and the Moors before the establishment of an independent Christian kingdom in the 1100s. Portugal flourished as a maritime and colonial power in the 1400s and 1500s with holdings in Africa, India, Southeast Asia, and Brazil. Much of its empire was lost to the British and the Dutch in the 1600s and 1700s, and the remaining colonies became independent in the 1800s and 1900s. Lisbon is the capital and the largest city. 31. A country of east-central Africa bordering on the Indian Ocean. The site of many fossils of early human species, Kenya was inhabited during historic times by various Cushitic, Nilotic, and Bantu peoples including the Kikuyu and the Masai. The coast was settled by Arab traders in the 8th century ad and later (16th-18th century) by the Portuguese. Kenya became a British protectorate in 1890 and crown colony in 1920. It achieved independence in 1963. Nairobi is the capital and the largest city. 32. A country of southern Europe along the northeast Adriatic coast. It was settled by Croats in the 7th century, became a kingdom in the 10th century, and reached the height of its power in the 11th century before being conquered by Hungary in 1091. After the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian Empire in 1918, Croatia became a part of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes, which later became Yugoslavia. Croatia declared its independence from Yugoslavia in 1991, triggering a period of warfare between ethnic Croats and ethnic Serbs that lasted until 1995. Zagreb is the capital and the largest city. 33. A country of South Asia in the Himalaya Mountains between India and southwest China. Site of a flourishing civilization by the 6th century bc , the region was later divided into principalities, one of which, Gurkha, became dominant in the 18th century. Gurkha's expansion into northern India led to border wars with Great Britain. A 1923 treaty affirmed Nepal's full sovereignty, and a constitutional monarchy was established in 1951. Kathmandu is the capital and the largest city. 35. A country of northwest Europe on the North Sea. Inhabited by Germanic tribes during Roman times, the region passed to the Franks (4th-8th century), the Holy Roman Empire (10th century), the dukes of Burgundy (14th-15th century), and then to the house of Habsburg. The northern part of the region formed the Union of Utrecht in 1579 and achieved its independence as the United Provinces in 1648 after the Thirty Years' War. In the 17th century the country enjoyed great commercial prosperity and expanded its territories in the East and West Indies and elsewhere. The kingdom of the Netherlands, proclaimed at the Congress of Vienna (1814-1815), included Belgium until 1830. Amsterdam is the constitutional capital and the largest city; The Hague is the seat of government. 36. An island country in the Leeward Islands of the West Indies east-southeast of Puerto Rico comprising Saint Kitts and the smaller island of Nevis. The islands were visited by Columbus in 1493 and settled by the English and the French in the early 1600s, being officially awarded to Great Britain by the 1783 Treaty of Paris. They were part of the West Indies Federation from 1958 to 1962 and in 1967 joined in a short-lived association with Anguilla. St. Kitts and Nevis became independent in 1983. Basseterre, on St. Kitts, is the capital. 37. A country of central and northwest North America with coastlines on the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. It includes the noncontiguous states of Alaska and Hawaii and various island territories in the Caribbean Sea and Pacific Ocean. The area now occupied by the contiguous 48 states was originally inhabited by numerous Native American peoples and was colonized beginning in the 1500s by Spain, France, the Netherlands, and England. Great Britain eventually controlled most of the Atlantic coast and, after the French and Indian Wars (1754-1763), the Northwest Territory and Canada. The original Thirteen Colonies declared their independence from Great Britain in 1776 and formed a government under the Articles of Confederation in 1781, adopting (1787) a new constitution that went into effect after 1789. The nation soon began to expand westward. Growing tensions over the issue of black slavery divided the country along geographic lines, sparking the secession of the South and the Civil War (1861-1865). The remainder of the 1800s was marked by increased westward expansion, industrialization, and the influx of millions of immigrants. The United States entered World War II after the Japanese attack (1941) on Pearl Harbor and emerged after the war as a world power. Washington, DC, is the capital and New York the largest city. 44. A country of southeast Africa between South Africa and Mozambique. Settled in the early 1800s by Swazi groups fleeing Zulu attacks, the region became a South African protectorate (1894-1899) and was subsequently transferred to British administration in 1903. Swaziland was granted limited autonomy in 1963 and achieved full independence in 1968. The country's first democratic elections were held in 1993. Mbabane is the capital and the largest city. 46. A country of northern Europe on the eastern Scandinavian Peninsula. The region was settled by Germanic tribes probably in Neolithic times, and by the 10th century ad the Swedes had extended their influence as far as the Black Sea. During the 14th century Sweden and Norway, and for a while Denmark, formed a union, but in the 16th century the Swedes revolted and established a separate state. By the 17th century Sweden was a major European power, controlling most of the Baltic coast. It lost much of its territory in the Great Northern War (1700-1721) but acquired Norway (1814) in the Napoleonic Wars, ruling it until 1905. Stockholm is the capital and the largest city. 47. UK A country of western Europe comprising England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland. Beginning with the kingdom of England, it was created by three acts of union: with Wales (1536), Scotland (1707), and Ireland (1801). At the height of its power in the 1800s, it ruled an empire that spanned the globe. London is the capital and the largest city. 48. A country of southern Africa on the Atlantic and Indian Oceans. Originally inhabited by the San and Khoikhoi, the region was settled by various Bantu peoples c. 1500. European settlement began with the Dutch in the mid-1600s. The region passed to Great Britain in 1814 but was hotly contested by descendants of the Dutch settlers in the Boer War (1899-1902), in which Britain took possession of the entire territory, creating the Union of South Africa in 1910. South Africa declared itself a republic in 1961, severed ties with the British Commonwealth, and further consolidated the apartheid system, which was repealed beginning in 1989. An interim constitution ending white rule was adopted in 1993, and the first multiracial elections were held in 1994. Pretoria is the administrative capital; Cape Town, the legislative capital; and Bloemfontein, the judicial capital. Johannesburg is the largest city. 49. A country of the western Balkan Peninsula bordering on the Adriatic Sea. An ancient Balkan state, it was at various times under Ottoman Muslim and theocratic Christian rule before becoming an independent kingdom (1910-1918). Montenegro then joined the newly formed Kingdom of the Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes, which became Yugoslavia after 1929. In 1991, four of the six Yugoslav republics declared independence, leaving Montenegro and Serbia as the sole constituents of a reorganized federal republic. Yugoslavia changed its name to Serbia and Montenegro in 2003 and dissolved the union altogether in 2006. Podgorica is the capital and largest city. 50. A country of southern Africa. Various Bantu peoples migrated into the area during the first millennium, displacing the earlier San inhabitants. European colonization began in 1889 under the British South Africa Company founded by Cecil Rhodes, and in 1923 it became the self-governing British colony of Southern Rhodesia (often just Rhodesia), which formed part of the colonial federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland from 1953 to 1963. Rhodesia declared itself independent in 1965, although independence was not formally granted by Great Britain until 1980. Harare is the capital and the largest city. 54. A country of southern Asia on the Bay of Bengal. Formerly part of Bengal, it became East Pakistan when India achieved independence in 1947. After a civil war with West Pakistan (1971) culminating in military intervention by India, Bangladesh formed a separate nation. Dhaka is the capital and the largest city. 56. A country in the Windward Islands of the West Indies comprising the island of Grenada and the southern Grenadines. Originally inhabited by Arawaks, who were later driven out by Caribs, the island of Grenada was sighted by Columbus in 1498 and settled by the French in the mid-1600s. It became a British colony in 1783 and achieved independence in 1974. A coup in 1979 brought a Marxist government to power, and concern over Cuban influence led to an invasion by primarily US troops in October 1983, after which democratic rule was restored. St. George's, on Grenada, is the capital and the largest city. 57. A country of eastern Asia consisting of the Philippine Islands, an archipelago in the western Pacific Ocean southeast of China. Inhabited by Malays and various indigenous groups, the islands were the first land in Asia sighted by Magellan's expedition in 1521 and were colonized by the Spanish after 1565. They came under US control in 1898 after the Spanish-American War. A commonwealth was created in 1935 and full independence achieved in 1946. The islands were occupied by Japan during much of World War II. Political turmoil led to the dictatorship of Ferdinand Marcos after 1965 and his exile in 1986 following the election of Corazón Aquino. Manila is the capital and Quezon City is the largest city. 59. A self-governing British colony comprising about 300 coral islands in the Atlantic Ocean southeast of Cape Hatteras. The first settlement was made in 1609 by British colonists shipwrecked on their way to Virginia. Tourism and international finance are crucial to its economy. Hamilton, on Bermuda Island, the largest in the archipelago, is the capital. 60. A country of north-central Europe west of Russia, bordering on the Baltic Sea. Settled before the 1st century ad, it was held successively between the 13th and 18th centuries by the Danes, German Livonian Knights, Swedes, and Russians. Estonia became an independent republic in 1918 but was annexed by the USSR in 1940. Occupied by Germany in 1941, it reverted to Soviet control in 1944 and was known as the Estonian Soviet Socialist Republic. Full independence was gained in 1991. Tallinn is the capital and the largest city. 61. A country of central Europe. The area was successively under Roman, Hunnish, Gothic, and Slavic rule before being conquered by Magyars in the late ninth century. Saint Stephen converted them to Christianity and subsequently established the first Hungarian state c. 997. Ruled by the Ottoman Turks after 1526, it later passed to Habsburg control, under which it became part of Austria-Hungary in 1867. In 1918 it achieved independence again. A Communist regime was established in 1949 and was replaced in 1989 by a democratic republic. Budapest is the capital and the largest city. 62. A country of northwest Europe on the North Sea. Inhabited in ancient times by the Belgae, the region was part of the Roman and Carolingian empires before breaking up into a number of feudal states during the Middle Ages. The area occupied by present-day Belgium passed to the Habsburgs in the 15th century and to the French in the 18th century. Following the defeat of Napoleon in 1815, Belgium was given to the kingdom of the Netherlands, from which it gained independence as a separate kingdom in 1830. Brussels is the capital and the largest city. 64. A British colony centered around the heavily fortified Rock of Gibraltar, a strategically located peninsula on the north side of the Strait of Gibraltar, connecting the Mediterranean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean between Spain and northern Africa. Gibraltar was captured by Arabs in 711 and passed to the Spanish in 1462. Great Britain captured Gibraltar in 1704 and was granted sovereignty by treaty in 1713. 66. A country of northeast Africa south of Sudan. Formerly part of Sudan, it gained its independence in 2011 after its residents voted in a referendum to form a separate nation. Juba is the capital. 67. A country of northwest Europe bordering on Belgium, Germany, and France. Created as a duchy in 1354, it was ruled successively by Burgundy, Spain, Austria, and France between 1443 and 1797, and it was made a grand duchy of the Netherlands by the Congress of Vienna (1814-1815). In 1839 the greater part of it passed to Belgium. The remainder became autonomous in 1848 and was declared a neutral and independent territory in 1867. Luxembourg is the capital. 68. A country of north-central Europe on the Baltic Sea. Settled perhaps as early as 1500 bc, the area was unified in the 1200s and became one of the largest states of medieval Europe. Lithuania merged with Poland in 1569 but was absorbed into Russia by three partitions of Poland (1772, 1793, and 1795). The independent country of Lithuania existed from 1918 to 1940, when it became a constituent republic of the USSR. Occupied by Germany from 1941 to 1944, it reverted to Soviet rule after World War II and was known as the Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic before achieving independence in 1991. Vilnius is the capital and the largest city. 69. A country of western Europe. It was settled by the Franks after the retreat of the Romans, who had conquered Celtic Gaul in 58-51 bc. Though Charlemagne incorporated it into his Empire of the West after ad 800, France was eventually split into numerous fiefdoms and principalities, many of which were not incorporated into the royal domain until the time of Louis XI (reigned 1461-1483). Widespread poverty and discontent led to the French Revolution (1789) and the end of the monarchy. The First Republic (1792-1804) was followed by the First Empire (1804-1815) under Napoleon I, a period of constitutional monarchy (1814-1848), and a succession of republics broken by the Second Empire (1852-1870) under Napoleon III. Much of France was occupied by Germany in World War II. Paris is the capital and the largest city. 70. An island country in the Mediterranean Sea south of Sicily, comprising the island of Malta and two smaller islands. Occupied successively by Phoenicians, Greeks, Carthaginians, Romans, Saracens, and Normans, Malta was granted to the Knights Hospitalers in 1530 and passed to France in 1798 and Great Britain in 1800. The country became independent in 1964. Valletta, on Malta Island, is the capital. 72. A country of western Africa on the Gulf of Guinea. It was inhabited in precolonial times by a number of ancient kingdoms, including an inland Ashanti kingdom and various Fante states along the coast. Trade with European states flourished after contact with the Portuguese in the 1400s, and the British established a crown colony, Gold Coast, in 1874. Ghana became independent in 1957. Accra is the capital and the largest city. 73. A tiny country of southwest Europe between France and Spain in the eastern Pyrenees. Although it pays nominal yearly homage to its suzerains in France and Spain, it is an independent republic. Andorra la Vella is the capital. 74. A country of west-central Africa on the Bight of Biafra. Comprising the former French Cameroons and the southern part of British Cameroons, it became independent in 1960. Yaoundé is the capital and Douala the largest city. 75. A country of east-central Africa on the Indian Ocean. Inhabited since prehistoric times and settled by Bantu peoples by the tenth century, most of the region was incorporated into German East Africa starting in 1885 and passed to the British in 1920 as Tanganyika. Zanzibar, a narrow strip along the coast, was a British protectorate after 1890. Tanganyika achieved independence in 1961 and joined with Zanzibar in 1964 to form Tanzania. Dar es Salaam is the largest city; Dodoma is the capital. 76. An island country in the Indian Ocean off southeast India. Inhabited originally by the Vedda, the island was later invaded by the Sinhalese (6th century bc) and the Tamil (10th century ad). The island's lucrative spice trade was controlled from the 12th century onward by the Arabs, Portuguese, Dutch, and British. Ceylon became a British colony in 1802 and achieved independence in 1948. In 1972 the island was declared a republic, adopting the Sinhalese name of Sri Lanka. A civil war between the government and Tamil separatists began in 1983 and ended in 2009 with the defeat of the Tamil army. Colombo is the capital and the largest city. 78. A country of northern North America. The original inhabitants of the region include the Inuit and First Nations. European colonists arrived in eastern Canada in the early 1600s, and the area was claimed by the French and then ceded (1763) to the English after the Seven Years' War. Confederation of the territories and provinces of British North America, which eventually included all land north of the United States, began in 1867 and ended with the addition of Newfoundland in 1949. The Statute of Westminster (1931) confirmed Canada's status as an independent Dominion within the Commonwealth. Ottawa is the capital and Toronto the largest city. 80. A country of southeast Europe with a short coastline on the Black Sea. Originally a Roman province, the area was conquered from the 3rd to the 12th century by a succession of invaders, including Goths, Huns, Magyars, and Mongols. In the 13th century two principalities, Moldavia and Wallachia, emerged, becoming vassal states within the Ottoman Empire and eventually Russian protectorates. They were united in 1862 and became independent in 1878. The rise of fascism in the 1930s led to the overthrow of the monarchy and the establishment of a dictatorship in 1940. Following Romania's surrender to the USSR during World War II, the country was declared (1947) a communist republic, which was overthrown in 1989 with army-supported countrywide revolts. Bucharest is the capital and the largest city. 81. A country of western Africa on the Gulf of Guinea. A variety of states were established in the region prior to the arrival of Europeans, including the Bornu, Benin, and Songhai empires. Exploited by Portuguese, British, French, and Dutch traders in the 1600s and 1700s, Nigeria was eventually claimed by the British, who consolidated the area into one colony in 1914. The country attained its independence in 1960. In 1991, the seat of government was moved from Lagos to the new capital, Abuja. 82. A country of east-central Africa. By the late 1700s, the region was the site of a Tutsi kingdom inhabited principally by Hutus. In 1890 it became part of German East Africa and later (1919) part of the Belgian League of Nations mandate of Ruanda-Urundi. Rwanda achieved independence from Belgium in 1962. In 1990 the country was invaded by the Rwandan Patriotic Front, a group largely composed of exiled Tutsis, which signed a peace agreement with the government in 1992. Ethnic fighting broke out again in 1994, and with the assassination of the president, the Hutu government initiated a campaign of genocide. It is estimated that 800,000 people were murdered before Tutsis seized control of the government one hundred days later. Many Rwandan Hutus fled to the Democratic Republic of the Congo, leading to ongoing conflict between the two countries. Kigali is the capital and largest city.